A Grammar of Warrongo

Warrongo is an extinct Australian Aboriginal language that used to be spoken in northeast Australia. This volume is largely based on the rich data recorded from the last fluent speaker. It details the phonology, morphology and syntax of the language. In particular, it provides a truly scrutinizing description of syntactic ergativity - a phenomenon that is rare among the world's language. It also shows that, unlike some other Australian languages, Warrongo has noun phrases that are configurational. Overall this volume shows what can be documented of a language that has only one speaker.

1;Preface;6 2;Acknowledgements;8 3;Contents;10 4;List of tables and figures;20 5;List of maps and photos;22 6;List of abbreviations and symbols;23 7;Chapter 1: The language and its speakers;32 7.1;1.1. Linguistic type;32 7.2;1.2. Names of the language and people;33 7.3;1.3. Dialects;34 7.4;1.4. Territory and neighbouring languages;35 7.4.1;1.4.1. Territory;35 7.4.2;1.4.2. Neighbouring languages and their classification;37 7.4.2.1;1.4.2.1. Proposed classifications;37 7.4.2.2;1.4.2.2. Studies on the neighbouring languages;37 7.4.2.3;1.4.2.3. Warrongo, Gugu-Badhun and Gujal as a linguistic unity;39 7.4.2.4;1.4.2.4. Problems with the proposed classifications;41 7.5;1.5. Environmental and socio-cultural background;45 7.5.1;1.5.1. Environmental setting;45 7.5.2;1.5.2. Archaeological and anthropological accounts;46 7.5.3;1.5.3. Mythology;46 7.5.4;1.5.4. Names of groups, individuals, and places;50 7.5.4.1;1.5.4.1. Names of groups;50 7.5.4.2;1.5.4.2. Names of individuals;52 7.5.4.3;1.5.4.3. Names of places;53 7.5.5;1.5.5. Sections and totems;56 7.5.6;1.5.6. Marriage rules;58 7.5.7;1.5.7. Kinship system;59 7.5.8;1.5.8. Other topics;63 7.6;1.6. Special styles of speech and songs;64 7.6.1;1.6.1. Jalngoy: the avoidance style of speech;64 7.6.2;1.6.2. Songs;65 7.6.3;1.6.3. Curses and expressions for abuse;68 7.7;1.7. Post-contact history;69 7.8;1.8. Studies on the Warrongo language;71 7.8.1;1.8.1. Introductory notes;71 7.8.2;1.8.2. Early studies on Warrongo;71 7.8.3;1.8.3. Modern studies on Warrongo;72 7.8.4;1.8.4. Speakers interviewed for the present study;74 7.8.4.1;1.8.4.1. Alf Palmer (Warrongo name: Jinbilnggay);74 7.8.4.2;1.8.4.2. Alec Collins (Warrongo name: Wolngarra);78 7.8.4.3;1.8.4.3. Other speakers;79 7.9;1.9. Present-day situation;82 8;Chapter 2: Phonology;84 8.1;2.1. Phonemes and their realizations;84 8.1.1;2.1.1. Phoneme inventory;84 8.1.2;2.1.2. Minimal pairs/sets;86 8.1.3;2.1.3. Allophones of consonants and semivowels;90 8.1.3.1;2.1.3.1. Nasals, rhotics, lateral,
and semivowels;90 8.1.3.2;2.1.3.2. Stops;91 8.1.3.2.1;2.1.3.2.1. Stop voicing (1): in terms of places of articulation;91 8.1.3.2.2;2.1.3.2.2. Stop voicing (2): in the word-initial position;92 8.1.3.2.3;2.1.3.2.3. Stop voicing (3): in the second syllable;96 8.1.3.2.4;2.1.3.2.4. Stop voicing (4): effect of C2 nasal on C1 stop;98 8.1.3.2.5;2.1.3.2.5. Stop voicing (5): effect of V1 on C1 stop, and of V2 on C2 stop;99 8.1.3.2.6;2.1.3.2.6. Stop voicing (6): in consonant clusters;102 8.1.3.2.7;2.1.3.2.7. Stop voicing (7): concluding remarks;105 8.1.4;2.1.4. Allophones of vowels;106 8.1.4.1;2.1.4.1. /a/;106 8.1.4.2;2.1.4.2. /u/;107 8.1.4.3;2.1.4.3. /i/;107 8.1.4.4;2.1.4.4. /i/ and /u/;111 8.1.5;2.1.5. Problems with /j/ and /w/;115 8.1.5.1;2.1.5.1. /j /;115 8.1.5.1.1;2.1.5.1.1. Introductory notes;115 8.1.5.1.2;2.1.5.1.2. Allophones of /ji/;115 8.1.5.1.3;2.1.5.1.3. Allophones of /j/ that is not followed by a vowel;119 8.1.5.2;2.1.5.2. /w/;123 8.2;2.2. Phonotactics;125 8.2.1;2.2.1. Structure of words;125 8.2.2;2.2.2. Characterization of enclitics;126 8.2.3;2.2.3. Syllable structure of roots, suffixes, enclitics, and words;128 8.2.3.1;2.2.3.1. Syllable structure of roots;128 8.2.3.2;2.2.3.2. Syllable structure of suffixes and enclitics;130 8.2.3.3;2.2.3.3. Syllable structure of words;131 8.2.4;2.2.4. Syllable types in roots, suffixes, enclitics, and words;132 8.2.5;2.2.5. Distribution of consonants and semivowels;136 8.2.5.1;2.2.5.1. Consonants and semivowels in roots;136 8.2.5.2;2.2.5.2. Consonants and semivowels in suffixes;138 8.2.5.3;2.2.5.3. Consonants and semivowels in enclitics;139 8.2.5.4;2.2.5.4. Consonants and semivowels in words;139 8.2.6;2.2.6. Consonant clusters;139 8.2.6.1;2.2.6.1. Intra-root consonant clusters;139 8.2.6.2;2.2.6.2. Inter-morphemic consonant clusters;143 8.2.6.3;2.2.6.3. Comparison and analysis of intra-root and inter-morphemic consonant clusters;145 8.2.7;2.2.7. Syllables: onset and coda;150 8.3;2.3. Statistics;152 8.3.1;2.3.1. Statistics (1): dic
tionary count;152 8.3.2;2.3.2. Statistics (2): text count;154 8.4;2.4. Alternation between phonemes;155 8.5;2.5. Natural classes;159 8.6;2.6. Phonological processes;161 8.7;2.7. Stress;164 8.8;2.8. Pitch;172 8.9;2.9. Connected speech;173 8.9.1;2.9.1. Intonation;173 8.9.2;2.9.2. Other phenomena;176 8.10;2.10. Careful speech;178 8.10.1;2.10.1. Deletion of a phoneme;178 8.10.2;2.10.2. Isolation of suffixes;180 8.11;2.11. Womens pronunciation (?);181 8.12;2.12. Ideophones;182 8.13;2.13. Adaptation of foreign words;183 8.13.1;2.13.1. Words from other Australian languages;183 8.13.2;2.13.2. Words from English;183 8.14;2.14. Practical orthography;186 9;Chapter 3: Word classes and morphology;187 9.1;3.1. Word classes;187 9.1.1;3.1.1. Outline of word classes;187 9.1.2;3.1.2. Additional comments on individual word classes;188 9.2;3.2. Noun morphology (1): case inflection;195 9.2.1;3.2.1. Case inflection of nouns and three demonstrative words;195 9.2.1.1;3.2.1.1. Regular nouns;196 9.2.1.2;3.2.1.2. Vowel-final proper and kin nouns;200 9.2.1.3;3.2.1.3. Irregular nouns;202 9.2.1.4;3.2.1.4. Ngani what,yarro this, here, ngona that, there, and ngoni there, that;204 9.3;3.3. Pronoun morphology;205 9.4;3.4. Adverb morphology (1): case inflection;207 9.4.1;3.4.1. Types of adverbs;207 9.4.2;3.4.2. Wanyja where;208 9.4.3;3.4.3. Comparison of adverbs and nouns: case inflection;209 9.5;3.5. Notes on case inflection;214 9.5.1;3.5.1. Silversteins NP hierarchy;214 9.5.2;3.5.2. Genitive, comitative and ablative cases;215 9.5.3;3.5.3. Nouns with no case inflection (?);215 9.6;3.6. Meanings and functions of cases;216 9.6.1;3.6.1. Nominative case;216 9.6.2;3.6.2. Ergative and accusative cases;218 9.6.3;3.6.3. Locative case;221 9.6.4;3.6.4. Dative case;226 9.6.5;3.6.5. Genitive case;232 9.6.6;3.6.6. Ablative-2 case;236 9.6.7;3.6.7. Ablative-1 case;236 9.6.8;3.6.8. Comitative case;241 9.7;3.7. Noun morphology (2): derivation;253 9.7.1;3.7.1. Noun-stem-forming suffixes;253 9.7.2;3.7.2. Reduplication
;269 9.7.3;3.7.3. Compounding;272 9.8;3.8. Adverb morphology (2): derivation;276 9.8.1;3.8.1. Adverb-stem-forming suffixes;276 9.8.2;3.8.2. Reduplication;282 9.8.3;3.8.3. Compounding;283 9.9;3.9. Verb morphology (1): introduction and inflection;284 9.9.1;3.9.1. Verb roots and transitivity;284 9.9.2;3.9.2. Verbalization, interrogative verbs, and demonstrative verbs;285 9.9.3;3.9.3. Conjugational classes;286 9.9.4;3.9.4. Verbal paradigms;290 9.9.4.1;3.9.4.1. Verbal paradigm (1): L-class, Y-class and ZERO-class;290 9.9.4.2;3.9.4.2. Verbal paradigm (2): derived stems;295 9.10;3.10. Meanings and functions of conjugational categories;297 9.10.1;3.10.1. Past;297 9.10.2;3.10.2. Nonfuture-1;298 9.10.3;3.10.3. Nonfuture-2;302 9.10.4;3.10.4. Nonfuture-3;305 9.10.5;3.10.5. Future;307 9.10.6;3.10.6. Comparative notes on tenses: past, present and future;308 9.10.7;3.10.7. Stative;308 9.10.8;3.10.8. General imperatives;309 9.10.9;3.10.9. Affirmative imperative;315 9.10.10;3.10.10. Negative imperative;316 9.10.11;3.10.11. Apprehensional;317 9.10.12;3.10.12. Four purposives;319 9.10.13;3.10.13. Purposive-1 and purposive-2;322 9.10.14;3.10.14. Purposive-3;327 9.10.15;3.10.15. Purposive-4;327 9.11;3.11. Verb morphology (2): derivation;329 9.11.1;3.11.1. Verb-stem-forming suffixes;329 9.11.1.1;3.11.1.1. -rra-(y)-mbi-L (song style ?);329 9.11.1.2;3.11.1.2. -nda-Y repeatedly, plural actors;331 9.11.1.3;3.11.1.3. -ya-L all, all the time;332 9.11.1.4;3.11.1.4. -rV-L plural (all, many);332 9.11.1.5;3.11.1.5. -yi-? future;334 9.11.1.6;3.11.1.6. -l and -i;335 9.11.1.7;3.11.1.7. -rr and -i;342 9.11.2;3.11.2. Reduplication of verb roots;346 9.11.3;3.11.3. Compounding;347 10;Chapter 4: Syntax;349 10.1;4.1. Introductory notes;349 10.2;4.2. Types of sentences;349 10.2.1;4.2.1. Sentence types (1): declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentences;349 10.2.1.1;4.2.1.1. Imperative sentences;349 10.2.1.2;4.2.1.2. Interrogative sentences;351 10.2.1.3;4.2.1.3. Exclamatory and declarative
sentences;355 10.2.2;4.2.2. Sentence types (2): affirmative and negative sentences;355 10.2.3;4.2.3. Sentence types (3): simple and complex sentences;355 10.3;4.3. Types of clauses;356 10.3.1;4.3.1. Clause types (1): intransitive and transitive clauses;356 10.3.2;4.3.2. Clause types (2): basic and derived clauses;357 10.3.3;4.3.3. Clause types (3): in terms of valency;357 10.3.3.1;4.3.3.1. Introductory notes;357 10.3.3.2;4.3.3.2. Three-place clauses;358 10.3.3.3;4.3.3.3. Two-place clauses;367 10.3.3.4;4.3.3.4. One-place clauses;368 10.4;4.4. Constituents of clauses;369 10.5;4.5. Types of phrases;371 10.5.1;4.5.1. Introductory notes;371 10.5.2;4.5.2. Noun phrases;372 10.5.2.1;4.5.2.1. Non-configurational NPs;373 10.5.2.1.1;4.5.2.1.1. Constituents of non-configurational NPs;373 10.5.2.1.2;4.5.2.1.2. Types of non-configurational NPs;373 10.5.2.1.3;4.5.2.1.3. Order of the constituents of non-configurational NPs;378 10.5.2.1.4;4.5.2.1.4. Additional remarks on non-configurational NPs;382 10.5.2.2;4.5.2.2. Configurational NPs;383 10.5.2.2.1;4.5.2.2.1. Genitive in NPs;384 10.5.2.2.2;4.5.2.2.2. Ones camp (1);385 10.5.2.2.3;4.5.2.2.3. Ones camp (2);386 10.5.2.2.4;4.5.2.2.4. Ones own camp;389 10.5.2.2.5;4.5.2.2.5. Ones/this camp;392 10.5.2.2.6;4.5.2.2.6. His/her father;392 10.5.2.2.7;4.5.2.2.7. Additional examples;394 10.5.2.2.8;4.5.2.2.8. Discussion and summary of configurational NPs;395 10.5.3;4.5.3. Adverb phrases;396 10.5.4;4.5.4. Verb phrases;397 10.5.4.1;4.5.4.1. Verb phrases consisting of two verbs;398 10.5.4.2;4.5.4.2. Verb phrases consisting of a verb and a noun or adverb;401 10.6;4.6. Order of constituents;403 10.6.1;4.6.1. Constituent order in words;403 10.6.2;4.6.2. Constituent order in phrases;405 10.6.3;4.6.3. Constituent order in clauses;405 10.6.3.1;4.6.3.1. Introductory notes;405 10.6.3.2;4.6.3.2. Constituent order in those independent clauses and main clauses which are used as affirmative declarative sentences;406 10.6.3.3;4.6.3.3. Constituent order in those
independent clauses and main clauses which are used as imperative sentences;411 10.6.4;4.6.4. Constituent order in sentences;413 10.7;4.7. Verb formation: -bi-L INTR, -nga-L TR, and -(m)ba-L TR;414 10.7.1;4.7.1. Intransitive-stem-forming suffix -bi-L be, become (state, change/inchoation);415 10.7.2;4.7.2. Transitive-stem-forming suffix -nga-L make, etc. (causation, creation, etc.);422 10.7.3;4.7.3. Transitive-stem-forming suffix -(m)ba-L;439 10.8;4.8. Complex sentences involving purposive subordination;443 10.8.1;4.8.1. Introductory notes;443 10.8.2;4.8.2. Combination of clauses;444 10.8.3;4.8.3. Coreference and syntactic ergativity;445 10.8.4;4.8.4. Coreferential deletion in purposive subordination;446 10.8.5;4.8.5. More on purposive subordination;453 10.9;4.9. Antipassive construction;458 10.9.1;4.9.1. Case frames and verbal morphology;458 10.9.2;4.9.2. Transitivity;461 10.9.3;4.9.3. Coreference: antipassives and syntactic ergativity;462 10.9.4;4.9.4. Purposive subordination;463 10.9.4.1;4.9.4.1. Purposive subordination without an antipassive;463 10.9.4.2;4.9.4.2. Purposive subordination with an antipassive;464 10.9.5;4.9.5. Coordination and sentence-sequence;469 10.9.6;4.9.6. Summary of coreference;474 10.9.6.1;4.9.6.1. Comparison of purposive subordination, coordination, and sentence-sequence;474 10.9.6.2;4.9.6.2. Crosslinguistic comparison of syntactic ergativity;476 10.9.7;4.9.7. More on antipassives in purposive subordination;476 10.9.8;4.9.8. Behaviour of pronouns;483 10.9.8.1;4.9.8.1. Voice distinction;483 10.9.8.2;4.9.8.2. Coreferential deletion and retention;484 10.9.8.2.1;4.9.8.2.1. Performance errors;484 10.9.8.2.2;4.9.8.2.2. Deletion and retention;486 10.9.9;4.9.9. Case frames and semantics;490 10.9.9.1;4.9.9.1. Semantic types of antipassive verbs;490 10.9.9.2;4.9.9.2. Case of the undergoer NP;495 10.9.9.2.1;4.9.9.2.1. Introductory notes;495 10.9.9.2.2;4.9.9.2.2. Animacy of the undergoer in terms of Silversteins NP hierarchy;495 10.9.9.2.3;4.9.9.2.3.
Affectedness of the undergoer in terms of verb semantics;498 10.9.9.2.4;4.9.9.2.4. Affectedness of the undergoer of action antipassives in terms of the conjugational category;500 10.9.9.3;4.9.9.3. Perception and knowledge antipassives;507 10.9.9.3.1;4.9.9.3.1. Semantics and case of the undergoer NP;507 10.9.9.3.2;4.9.9.3.2. Nyaga-L and nyaga-gali-ZERO see, look at, etc.;509 10.9.9.3.3;4.9.9.3.3. Nyaga~nyaga-L look at, look after, mind, watch out and nyaga~nyaga-gali-ZERO look at, watch out;510 10.9.9.3.4;4.9.9.3.4. Jaymba-L find and jaymba-gali-ZERO find, search for;511 10.9.9.3.5;4.9.9.3.5. Ngawa-L and ngawa-gali-ZERO hear, listen to and understand;512 10.9.9.3.6;4.9.9.3.6. Additional observations on perception and knowledge antipassives;514 10.9.9.4;4.9.9.4. NOM-GEN and NOM-ACC for antipassives;514 10.9.9.5;4.9.9.5. Case frames of three-place antipassives;516 10.9.9.6;4.9.9.6. Case of NPs for instrument, location, and destination;522 10.9.9.6.1;4.9.9.6.1. Case of NPs for instrument;522 10.9.9.6.2;4.9.9.6.2. Case of NPs for location;527 10.9.9.6.3;4.9.9.6.3. Case of NPs for destination;528 10.9.9.6.4;4.9.9.6.4. Case of NPs: discussion;528 10.9.10;4.9.10. Aspectual and modal meanings;529 10.9.11;4.9.11. Pragmatics and discourse;533 10.9.11.1;4.9.11.1. Introductory notes;533 10.9.11.2;4.9.11.2. Continuous mentions of referents;533 10.9.11.3;4.9.11.3. Focus;536 10.10;4.10. Subordination with the enclitic =ngomay after, if, because;537 10.10.1;4.10.1. Introductory notes;537 10.10.2;4.10.2. Involving an intransitive verb or an adjective-like noun;538 10.10.3;4.10.3. Involving an antipassive verb;540 10.10.4;4.10.4. Involving a transitive verb;543 10.10.5;4.10.5. Discussion;544 10.11;4.11. Reflexive and middle constructions;546 10.11.1;4.11.1. Introductory notes;546 10.11.2;4.11.2. Vt-gali-ZERO reflexive (AP);547 10.11.2.1;4.11.2.1. Vt-gali-ZERO true reflexive (A&O : d-S) (AP);547 10.11.2.2;4.11.2.2. Vt-gali-ZERO anticausative (O : d-S) (AP);554 10.11.3;4.11.3. Vt-li-ZER
O reflexive (AP, AC);555 10.11.3.1;4.11.3.1. Vt-li-ZERO true reflexive (A&O : d-S) (AP, AC);556 10.11.3.2;4.11.3.2. Vt-li-ZERO anticausative (O : d-S) (AP, AC);561 10.11.4;4.11.4. Vi-gali-ZERO and Noun-gali-ZERO middle (AP);564 10.11.5;4.11.5. Vi-li-ZERO, Vi-l-Vi-li-ZERO, Noun-li-ZERO and Adverb-li-ZERO middle (AP);566 10.12;4.12. Reciprocal construction;568 10.12.1;4.12.1. Introductory notes;568 10.12.2;4.12.2. Reciprocal verbs;569 10.12.3;4.12.3. Syntax;571 10.12.4;4.12.4. Semantics;577 10.12.4.1;4.12.4.1. Completely coreferential and partly coreferential;578 10.12.4.2;4.12.4.2. Simultaneous and alternate;579 10.12.5;4.12.5. Lexicalization;581 10.12.5.1;4.12.5.1. Reciprocals with a singular d-S;581 10.12.5.2;4.12.5.2. Higher frequency of reciprocal verbs;585 10.12.5.3;4.12.5.3. Idiom-like expressions;585 10.12.6;4.12.6. Non-reciprocal uses;586 10.12.6.1;4.12.6.1. Sociative together;586 10.12.6.2;4.12.6.2. Participating in a group action;587 10.12.6.3;4.12.6.3. Reflexive;588 10.12.6.4;4.12.6.4. Anticausative;589 10.12.7;4.12.7. Expressions of the d-S and the S;590 10.12.8;4.12.8. More on the semantics of reciprocals;590 10.12.9;4.12.9. More on the formation of reciprocal verbs;591 10.12.9.1;4.12.9.1. Morphological restrictions;591 10.12.9.2;4.12.9.2. Reciprocal verb based on a noun;592 10.12.9.3;4.12.9.3. Etymology;592 10.13;4.13. Iterative construction;593 10.13.1;4.13.1. Iterative verbs;593 10.13.2;4.13.2. Syntax;597 10.13.2.1;4.13.2.1. Intransitive-garra-Y;597 10.13.2.2;4.13.2.2. Transitive-garra-Y;598 10.13.3;4.13.3. Semantics;601 10.13.3.1;4.13.3.1. Aspectual meanings: the imperfective;601 10.13.3.2;4.13.3.2. Obligatory vs. non-obligatory use of -garra-Y;604 10.13.4;4.13.4. More on the formation of iterative verbs;606 10.13.4.1;4.13.4.1. Iterative verbs based on an adverb and a noun;606 10.13.4.2;4.13.4.2. -n-garra-n;606 10.14;4.14. Applicative construction;607 10.14.1;4.14.1. Introductory notes;607 10.14.2;4.14.2. Verbal locative construction: Vi-ri-L;607 10.
14.2.1;4.14.2.1. Locative verbs;607 10.14.2.2;4.14.2.2. Case frames;609 10.14.2.3;4.14.2.3. Transitivity;612 10.14.2.4;4.14.2.4. Use;612 10.14.2.4.1;4.14.2.4.1. Frequency;612 10.14.2.4.2;4.14.2.4.2. Use in purposive subordination: syntactic ergativity;612 10.14.2.4.3;4.14.2.4.3. Lexicalized locative verbs;614 10.14.2.4.4;4.14.2.4.4. ADJECTIVE to VERB construction;615 10.14.2.4.5;4.14.2.4.5. Word order: topic (?);615 10.14.2.5;4.14.2.5. Locative verbs with the causative meaning;616 10.14.3;4.14.3. Verbal instrumental construction: Vt-ri-L;617 10.14.3.1;4.14.3.1. Instrumental verbs;617 10.14.3.2;4.14.3.2. Case frames and valency;619 10.14.3.3;4.14.3.3. Use;621 10.14.3.3.1;4.14.3.3.1. Syntactic possibilities;621 10.14.3.3.2;4.14.3.3.2. Use in purposive subordination: syntactic ergativity;626 10.14.3.3.3;4.14.3.3.3. Lexicalized instrumental verbs;628 10.14.3.3.4;4.14.3.3.4. X is for VERBing with construction;628 10.14.3.4;4.14.3.4. More on the morphology;629 10.14.3.5;4.14.3.5. Restrictions (?) on the use of instrumental verbs;629 10.14.3.5.1;4.14.3.5.1. Inflectional suffixes;629 10.14.3.5.2;4.14.3.5.2. Pronouns for the DAT;631 10.14.4;4.14.4. Restrictions on the use of applicative verbs;631 10.14.4.1;4.14.4.1. Derivational suffixes;631 10.14.4.2;4.14.4.2. Animacy of the A NP;632 10.14.4.3;4.14.4.3. Meaning of the basic NP;632 10.15;4.15. Participial subordination;633 10.15.1;4.15.1. Participle-1 -nyo;633 10.15.1.1;4.15.1.1. Introductory notes;633 10.15.1.2;4.15.1.2. Participle-1 used in a subordinate clause;635 10.15.1.3;4.15.1.3. Participle-1 used in a simple sentence;638 10.15.2;4.15.2. Participle-2 -nji;639 10.15.2.1;4.15.2.1. Introductory notes;639 10.15.2.2;4.15.2.2. Participle-2 used in a subordinate clause;640 10.15.2.3;4.15.2.3. Participle -2 used in a simple sentence;642 10.15.2.4;4.15.2.4. Participle-2 used in songs;642 10.15.3;4.15.3. Participle-3 -njirra;643 10.16;4.16. Relative clause;644 10.17;4.17. Apprehensional construction lest ... should;645 10.17.1;
4.17.1. Introductory notes;645 10.17.2;4.17.2. Comparison of apprehensional construction and purposive subordination;648 10.18;4.18. Subordination without any morphosyntactic marker;649 10.18.1;4.18.1. Emotion (1): X is afraid that ...;650 10.18.2;4.18.2. Emotion (2): X is glad that ...;652 10.18.3;4.18.3. Knowledge : X knows that ...;653 10.18.4;4.18.4. Perception: X sees/hears Y doing ...;653 10.18.5;4.18.5. Speech activity: X tells/asks ...;654 10.18.6;4.18.6. Condition if and future time when, while;660 10.18.6.1;4.18.6.1. With a subordinate clause containing a verb;660 10.18.6.2;4.18.6.2. With a subordinate clause containing no verb;664 10.19;4.19. And, but and for;665 10.20;4.20. Expression of possession and existence;667 10.20.1;4.20.1. Introductory notes;667 10.20.2;4.20.2. Possession cline;667 10.20.3;4.20.3. Genitive case;668 10.20.4;4.20.4. Dative, ablative-1, and comitative cases;673 10.20.5;4.20.5. Apposition of possessor/whole and possessee/part;675 10.20.5.1;4.20.5.1. Introductory notes;675 10.20.5.2;4.20.5.2. Apposition (1): accusative, ergative, dative, locative, and ablative-1 cases;676 10.20.5.3;4.20.5.3. Apposition (2): nominative;681 10.20.5.4;4.20.5.4. Apposition (3): discussion;688 10.20.6;4.20.6. X Y nyawa NEG: X has no Y, There is no Y in X;689 10.20.7;4.20.7. Subordination involving a body part noun;692 10.20.8;4.20.8. Transitive verb ganyji-L carry;695 10.21;4.21. Ngani Whatsisname;696 10.22;4.22. Sentence-topic word;700 10.23;4.23. Yamanyon similar, like: word and enclitic (?);702 10.24;4.24. Adverbs of modality and the like;704 10.25;4.25. Enclitics;713 10.26;4.26. Interjections;729 11;Texts;731 11.1;Text 1: An excerpt from Tape 72/26;731 11.2;Text 2: An excerpt from Tape 72/28;744 11.3;Text 3: An excerpt from Tape 72/23;750 12;References;754 13;Index of subjects;767 14;Index of languages;777 15;Index of names;779